This analysis of the first art gallery at the Smithsonian reveals how Henry used visual and metaphorical devices to acclimatize the American public to a more rational view of their world based on scientific principles. In laying down the foundations for new understandings Henry had to create an iconographic program for the museum that would:
i. Establish the Smithsonian as a place of scientific learning.
ii. Reconnect the American public with their cultural heritage that included the indigenous Indian populations and the ideology of the nation born out of Republican idealism.
iii. Unite religious beliefs with scientific theories of nature.
iv. Counteract the moral and social damage caused by Civil War.
In his youth Henry was an enthusiastic amateur actor who organized a theatre company, including writing scripts and directing them. Goode (1897, p. 118) suggests that this early experience may have contributed to the success of the educational rationale that underpinned the display of the first art gallery. Accordingly, this chapter considers the juxtaposition of art and science and nature in terms of the narrative script of the collection. In viewing the exhibition’s iconographic program as three distinct theatrical acts, it becomes apparent that Henry was utilizing artworks and the setting to stimulate the imagination and interest of the viewer and thus prepare the mind for scientific conceptualization.
The Setting
The first art collection was arranged across three rooms in the west wing of the original Smithsonian building – the chapel-like library, a cloistered reading hall and ‘main gallery’ room (fig. 3). The medieval style architecture was intended to evoke the refined atmosphere associated with English colleges and thus emphasized the Smithsonian’s devotion to scholarly activities.[i] Reflective of Romantic philosophy, the reference to gothic revivalism also conveyed new attitudes to history that included non-classical periods in the continuum of time (Brown 2006, p. 197-198). Whilst the architectural design of art museum’s in Europe such as the Louvre in Paris incorporated the Classical ideology of civilization descending from ancient Greece, the Smithsonian in Washington clearly challenged this attitude to ‘primitive’ cultures, human achievement and historical time.[ii]
In this way the Smithsonian could consider the inclusion of American indigenous people into the establishment of the nation’s cultural heritage. The eclectic design of the building embodied the concerns of the socio-political civil war climate and the debate regarding cultural superiority. In the same way the attitudes of freedom and equality upon which the new Republic was founded still resounded in the ideology of the architecture style.
The Enlightenment era of scientific invention raised new theories about God and nature. In colonial America religious cause became intertwined into the justification of revolutionary events (Thompson 2004, p. 41). By the time the Smithsonian building was completed in 1855, the only way that Henry could achieve his scientific vision was through an explicit connection to existing religious and moral belief systems. Indeed, in outlining the noble purpose of the Smithsonian to Congress, scientist and former president John Quincy Adams spoke of a knowledge that made it possible for humankind to improve one’s condition on earth and thereby ‘discover its own nature as the link between heaven and earth’ (cited in Goode 1897, p. 27).Thus the building reflected the stage of scientific perception in America at the time.
Recent study by Bouquet 2000 (cited in Carbonell 2004, p. 195) asserts that ‘the re-incorporation of religious like structures into the secular public space was indicative that the Enlightenment division between Reason and Belief was anything but a clean break.’ Of the incorporation of the ‘native’ culture into the architectural ideology, Bouquet refers to the ‘continuing importance of other-worldly experience such as contact with ancestors of various kinds.’ In this way the traditions of America’s indigenous cultures provided a scientific opportunity into revealing the correlation between creation, nature and the rational explanation for phenomena.
The architectural setting added to the understanding of scientific knowledge and formed what Sophie Forgan (2005, p. 580) describes as the art museum’s visual vocabulary. Further to this the building situated on the boulevard near Capitol Hill not impacted upon the regeneration and identity of the city, it also ‘created a trust in the authoritarian nature of knowledge.’ In concert with the architecture, the art collection which included indigenous artifacts would create a visual link to the esoteric ideas of morality, national glory, history and the natural world. In propelling America toward the ideology of the modern era whereby, according to Nochlin (1971, p. 41) ‘art could provide direct knowledge of reality itself’ and was regarded as a product of the mind comparable with science, Henry could broaden the existing schemata of the American public and facilitate an atmosphere for new discovery and self-knowledge. ‘The more art develops, the more scientific it will be, just as science will become art’ (Flaubert cited in Nochlin 1971, p. 42). Act One began in the Chapel-Library.
Act One – The Library
The role of the artwork against this backdrop may be understood through a consideration of the Classical Etymology and Renaissance Genealogy of the Museum as explained by Findlen, 1989 (cited in Carbonell 2004, p. 24). In this context, Findlen refers to the notion of the museum as epistemological structure, the starting point from which to enter a wide range of philosophical discussions on knowing, perceiving and classifying. The library setting endorsed Henry’s vision for scholarship and collection in the sciences as well his aim to communicate such knowledge through publication. In this way, the chapel like surroundings directly link Henry’s conception to the library at Alexandria (290BCE) which served as a research centre and congregating point for scholars as well as to the monastic ideal of study as an introspective endeavor (Findlen 1989, cited in Carbonell 2004, p. 25; 23).
In keeping with the original intention for the role of art at the Smithsonian that included not only a gallery but also learning studios whereby young American artists study, copy and pursue artistic knowledge, the library held a collection of ‘theoretical, historical, descriptive and critical works on the fine arts’ purchased from George Perkins Marsh in 1849 (see Appendix D, an account of the collection). The Marsh collection was regarded by the Institution as the nucleus to a natural history museum (Goode 1897, p. 291). In the same way, Findlen (1989) describes the Renaissance Museum as an axis through which practices of categorizing and collecting in the natural world was interwoven with words, images and things (cited in Carbonell 2004, p. 29).
With woodcuts prints by Durer, etchings by Rembrandt, engravings by Lorraine and drawings by Da Vinci amongst the collection, the aim was to educate the eye and foster the fundamental skills observation. According to Meder (1978, p. 5), the study of drawing is one of the most absorbing and difficult pursuits of knowledge,
…demanding a rich acquaintance with the arts, much personal manual experience of techniques, great powers of observation, a good memory, and as complete a set of references as possible.
It is within this context that the connections between the artist, art and the study of science could be shaped. Indeed, according to Meder (1978, p. 5) it was only in the nineteenth century that scientific evaluations of old-master drawings commenced as part of the study of the education of artists. Fink (2007, p. 12-13) explains that both scientists and artists required a mastery of the technique of drawing, such as in the portrayal of spatial relationships or human anatomy so that the truths hidden in nature could be revealed. Indeed, the use of artwork as a means to make known new discoveries in science is clearly mentioned in Henry’s ‘Programme of Organization for the Smithsonian Institution 1847.’ This program covered the entire scope proposed activities of the Institution (See Appendix E).
Whilst the scholarly aspirations using the metaphor of the library setting is perceptible, the print based collection which included works in Greek, Finnish, Japanese and French also initiates a philosophical consideration of written symbolism, modes and tools of communication and linguistics. This linguistic theme is revisited in the Second Act, as the script moves into the Reading Room.
In closing, whilst complete records of the early collection do not exist, lists of items that the Smithsonian inherited from earlier museums such as the National Institute and Patent Office Building indicate that a group of busts also occupied the Library (Fink 2007, p. 22). Included in this assortment was the bust of Ceres, in porphyritic marble, from Pompeii (fig. 6). In the Middle Ages Ceres stood for the Church, however one wonders if Act One intentionally ends in humorous anecdote. In recalling the exchange between Senator Douglas as described earlier on page 31, Ceres the Greek Goddess of agriculture may indeed have graced the library in the hope that the scholarly pursuits at the Smithsonian would eventually yield so much more than ‘the desire for good potatoes.’
Act Two ~ The Cloisters/Reading Room
The cloistered reading room provided a visual experience that linked the library to the main gallery space. This event built upon the idea of establishing connections to a cultural heritage by introducing the iconography of revolution, republic and the indigenous population. On one side of the room were hung portraits of distinguished American and European men, including military officers, scientists and statesmen (Fink 2007, p. 21). Below these images, casts of antique works and plaster busts of other illustrious individuals sat on plinths that lined one side of the rectangular room.
The portraits of the heroes of the revolution together with the casts and busts were indicative of the existing artistic practices and knowledge of the fledgling nation.[i] Portraits were the mainstay of American art, common to the ‘best-room’ of any American home (Karp 1965, p. 96). There was a common belief that portraits could ‘teach character traits such as leadership and scientific thoughtfulness’ (Leone & Little 1993, cited in Carbonell 2004, p. 367). Further to this, concerning the artistic educational value, the casts and replicas of statuary provided the opportunity to study form, workmanship and technique and thus foster respect for the originals (Wallach 1998, p. 41).
Whilst providing explicit knowledge to the American artist, the display of these pieces also suggests an implicit purpose, one that would conjure up the ideology and Republican idealism upon which the nation was founded. According to Wallach (1998, p. 46), the only way that the American public could acquire the benefits of a higher civilization was through the perusal of casts and reproductions. These items formed the heart and soul of the public art museum and played a key role in influencing an ideal of national character. The tradition of the Republic came from Roman antiquity and in describing the iconographic subtext that underpinned the replica of the bust, civic qualities such as virtue, citizenship, participation and democracy come to the fore. In this way, through the object, Enlightenment ideology could be re-introduced to the public mentality. Furthermore, according to Paine biographer Nelson (2006, p. 118), America’s founding fathers, some of who appeared in the portraits, modeled themselves on classic Roman orators and thus the thematic association to modes of communication and the diffusion of such knowledge becomes a part of the ideological sub-text.
Indeed, presiding over this gallery was a portrait of Francois Pierre Guillame Guizot, a celebrated author who translated the life and writings of George Washington into French. Paper and manuscript are the visual focus of this portrait by Peter Alexander Healy (fig. 8) Amongst the busts was Ferdinand Pettrich’s sculpture of statesman and ‘true republican’ Joel Poinsett (fig. 9) who in 1841 gave a stirring public address on the significance of art for the nation, (cited in Goode 1897, p. 38):
Here the people reign – all power is centered in them…no expense or pains should be spared to inspire them with…a taste for the fine arts…it must originate at the seat of the government and spread from this place over the populous plains and fertile valleys of the land.
Whilst Henry tried to keep the Institution separate from the ‘corrupt’ government as explained earlier on page 29, one can argue that the state of divisive politics that existed in America in the years following Poinsett’s address contributed largely to the lack of a coherent national identity.
The socio-political message is continued on the other side of the Reading Room, where indigenous American portraits sit above cabinets displaying the cultural production of Indian life (fig. 10). The significance of equality is evident with the Indian portraits hung on the same level as those of the distinguished American and European men. They faced those who through noble action contributed to the fabric of American society. In contrast, the Indian portraits revealed an inherent nobility and dignity of character. With veiled references to the war climate now being added to the script, the ‘hang’ in this space evoked a sense of peaceful and civil relations at a time when the very existence of the United States did in fact, in True’s words, ‘hang in the balance’ (1950, p. 180). Further to this metaphor, a copy of the sculpture Justice and Minerva sat at the end of this gallery. The interpretation of this inclusion to the display is manifold and may be reference to (1) civilizing influences; (2) wisdom in the face of the inevitable military action of the states; (3) the fight for just cause such as the commitment of Henry to research native American culture that was in danger of being lost forever; (4) the justification of past fighting between the settlers and Indians, whereby Western expansion meant national progress.
The scholars at the Smithsonian believed that knowledge of the indigenous culture was critical to a full understanding the role of art as an aid to cultural advancement (True1950, p. 241). In fact, in returning to the theme of communication, Smithsonian researchers of linguistics were eventually to discover the importance of decorative art upon the development of writing and that early American hieroglyphics signified the beginnings of a definite art of graphic expression (Goode 1897, p. 382-383). In this way a further connection may be made to the Renaissance genealogy of the museum, whereby initial studies into hieroglyphics by Jesuit missionary Kirchner revealed that these symbols were richly encoded and had the potential to unlock the mysteries of past civilizations (Findlen cited in Carbonell 2004, p. 34).[i]
With a final reference to the etymology of the Museaum, the presence of the bust of Apollo Belvedere, in this room emphasized the direct ties to ancient wisdom and learning in the arts (Findlen cited in Carbonell 2004, p. 26). Similarly, Revolutionary thinkers in America also referred to the natural wisdom of Native American political and socio-cultural philosophy (Nelson 2006, p. 117). This artistic juxtaposition of time and cultural objects that encompassed philosophies of science, art, religion, politics and nature led to a dramatic finale in the gallery room proper, Act Three.
Act 3 ~ The Main Gallery Room
According to Fink (2007, p. 22), the Main Gallery Room displayed 145 portraits of Indians by Charles Bird and 152 paintings of Indian life by John Mix, hung in five tiers on one wall. Also in this room were display cases filled with Native American costumes, war implements, artifacts and objects of indigenous life and nature specimens. This exhibit which combined art, natural history and ethnology served to re-emphasize the connection between nature and science and how a fascination with nature intrigued both the artist and scientist. Through direct observation the truths inherent in nature could thereby be revealed (Fink 2007, p. 14). Whilst the Native American images were of significant ethnological value, they were also considered to have considerable artistic merit. In a report written by Henry in 1852 (Rathburn 1909, p.58), he describes the picture room as containing ‘a very interesting series of portraits, mostly full-size of…North American Indians, with sketches of the scenery of the country they inhabit.’
The Royal Academy style hang of these portraits raises some interesting philosophical consideration of the correlation between scientific and artistic practices. Fink (2007, p. 13) refers to the way in which scientists of the era would focus on the general attributes of a natural form. In the same way the five tier hang reflected the nineteenth- century relationship that art had with scientific representation. In presenting the viewer with a vast landscape the hang of the gallery reflected the opinion of Royal Academy director Joshua Reynolds whereby ‘an artist should regard the invariable and general ideas of nature and avoid being distracted by minute particularities and accidental discrimination’ (cited in Fink 2007, p. 12).
Furthermore, it appears that the hang may have been utilized to demonstrate the extent of the Smithsonian’s interest into the research of the Indigenous populations. In a review of Hinsley’s (1981) account of the emergence of American anthropology, the Wilson Quarterly reveals that it was ‘inspired by moral and religious commitments, bent on constructing a unified science of humanity that would help bring about the future generalized race.’ The five tier hang emphasizes this sense of unity. In drawing together concepts of art, science and nature the picture wall may be read as a metaphor for the belief in human existence stemming from one spiritual Being (Goode1897, p.155). The idea of a Being made visible through the ‘glorious benevolence of nature and the astounding order of the cosmos’ signaled the Enlightenment view of religion whereby the mysteries of the universe could be revealed through science (Nelson 2006, p. 117). In this way Henry conveyed the moral and religious implications of natural philosophy and his vision of science as more than physics and biology (Henry Papers, 2007).
The portraits were largely of indigenous chiefs who visited Washington to transact business with the government. Whilst in the capitol on such business, the gallery became a place of great interest to groups of representatives from various Indian tribes. A report by Henry in 1852 mentions visitors to the gallery recognizing personal acquaintances amongst the likenesses (Rathburn 1909, pp. 62; 58). In this way, the Native American Gallery can be perceived as the central point of a national museum collection (Hassrick 1992, p.26). Both Bird and Stanley’s artwork extolled the beauty and stoic dignity of the Native American’s, often portraying their subjects as ‘heroic warriors, equal in nobility to their Greek and Roman counterparts’ (Slowik 2006, p. 62). According to True (1950, p. 241), in diffusing knowledge, the art collection conveyed that its varied forms were woven into the very history of the American race. Indeed, in commenting upon the subject of the Indian in American landscape, a writer for The Crayon in 1856 links the noble warrior and mythic frontier in a convincing visual metaphor for national identity (See Appendix G, for article).
In allegorical terms, identity as represented by the wall of portraits may be likened metaphorically to the unexplored Western frontier. In describing the viewing behaviours of the public when confronted with the dense tier hang, O’Doherty (1999, p. 16) relates a back and forth movement, the close peering and a retreat ‘at a more judicious distance.’ This strange dance almost sees the viewer enacting out the forward and backward motion that the nation had already encountered when it came to its own advancement and sense of identity! Historically, Western expansion and thus the progress of the nation met opposition from hostile Indian tribes. However, in creating trust amongst the indigenous tribes, Henry’s ‘Indian Gallery’ opened the way to a scientific and organized study of the native cultures, including expeditions into the largely unknown Western lands. In this way, one can consider that the first art collection served to answer the intellectual enquiries of the founder, in his own desire to understand and therefore advance the frontiers of American anthropological knowledge (True 1946, p. 19).
Apart from indigenous visitors, the gallery was also frequented by Union soldiers who were encouraged to ‘visit it as often as their duties would permit’ (Fink 2007, p. 25). Serving as a diversion to the confusion, death and disease that came with the influx of soldiers to the capitol, the art collection could also impart vital information about national heritage at a time when the nation’s inherent identity itself was being questioned on the battlefield. With a copy of The Dying Gaul by John Gott being the central feature to this room, one can appreciate that whilst the statue may refer to the dying race of indigenous warrior, its poignant significance during the time of civil war is extremely powerful.
Whilst the Classical concept of time was concerned with a linear destiny, the Medieval notion of time was cyclic (Bazin1967 cited in Carbonell 2004). With the Gothic Revivalist setting facilitating the accommodation of Indian history into the panorama of time, one considers the legacy of the league of Indian Nations that was formed in the sixteenth century that was established for the ‘purpose of stopping the shedding of human blood by violence and by establishing peace…by means of a constitutional form of government based on peace justice and righteousness (True1950, p. 190).
Whilst the stereograph clearly indicates that the statue is in fact a copy of The Dying Gaul, Fink (2007, p. 23) considers that the effigy could very well have been Gott’s Dying Spartacus which ‘depicted a rebel slave falling upon the Roman he had slain.’ In light of this discussion about the loss of Republican idealism and civil war, Fink’s choice of words is provocative. Indeed, Enlightenment thinkers saw senselessness in war, with their correspondence espousing phrases like ‘the sciences, like the muses should be sisters, and ought to know no distinction of country or government’ (Ewing 2007, p. 251). Henry like Smithson ardently espoused this peaceful fraternity of advancement through science. The civil war brought much interruption to the programs at the Institution and in a similar way True (1950, p. 192) considers what far reaching effects could have sprung from the Indian league of nations had not the white invaders from the sea come to disrupt its workings.
[i] Further to this, Chapter Four demonstrates how this appreciation of the artistic production of the indigenous culture led to a realization of aesthetics in American art.
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